Noor N. A. Heavy Metal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources of Kirkuk, Iraq: A Systematic Assessment of Published Data and Evaluation of Treatment Technologies
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Abstract
This review systematically discussed the heavy metal contamination in drinking water sources in Kirkuk Governorate and similar areas of Iraq based on published data for the period 2010-2026. The concentrations of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) were collected from peer reviewed studies on water treatment plants, groundwater wells and industrial wastewater. The results showed that the treatment plants in Kirkuk municipality (Kiwan and Al-Dibs) are efficient in reducing heavy metals below the detection limits, while the industrial wastewater and shallow groundwater in the surrounding areas are highly contaminated. The cadmium and lead concentrations in Kirkuk industrial zones were 100 to 300 times higher than Iraqi Standard 417/2011 and WHO guidelines. Health risk indices (HPI > 100) classify several sources as critically polluted. This review explores the conventional and emerging treatment technologies including reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ion exchange, chemical precipitation and low-cost adsorption for their suitability in the Iraqi context. Removal efficiencies of 85 to 99% were obtained by low-cost adsorbents such as activated carbon and clay minerals, which are recommended for decentralized rural systems, while membrane technologies (RO/NF) are optimal for urban treatment plants. The results suggest the need for continuous monitoring, tight control of industrial effluents and use of appropriate treatment technologies to protect the health of the peoples of Kirkuk.
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